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2013년 11월 29일 금요일

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With               George               W.

Bush               and               Vladimir               Putin               seemingly               intent               on               bringing               back               the               Cold               War,               the               life               and               career               of               Josef               Broz               Tito,               the               communist               dictator               of               the               erstwhile               united               Yugoslavia,               gives               an               example               to               the               ruling               cliques               of               the               USSR's               former               satellites               on               how               NOT               to               incur               the               fatal               wrath               of               the               Russian               Bear.

While               it               is               true               that               Yugoslavia               was               never               a               part               of               the               Russian               Empire               nor               the               Soviet               Union               like               Georgia               and               Ukraine,               the               Russian               Empire               did               go               to               war               in               1914               over               the               integrity               of               Serbia,               one               of               the               constituent               parts               of               the               Kingdom               of               Yugoslavia               that               was               created               by               the               Treaty               of               Versailles.

The               history               of               the               former               Yugoslavia               and               Russia               have               been               linked,               a               consideration               that               George               W.

Bush               and               Secretary               of               State               Condoleeza               Rice               should               have               given               more               cognizance               too               before               declaring               the               independence               of               Kosovo,               the               Albanian-majority               province               of               Serbia               that               had               been               part               of               the               country               for               the               past               seven               centuries.

Russia               and               the               Soviet               Union               always               acted               to               protect               its               borders,               to               create               a               glacis               to               provide               security               against               invasion.

One               must               ask               how               the               United               States               and               the               European               Union               thought               they               could               provoke               the               sleeping               giant               by               declaring               Kosovo               independent               on               the               basis               of               its               having               an               ethnic               majority               that               was               non-Serbian               and               not               get               a               commensurate               response?

It               was               obvious               that               Russia               would               react               by               seeking               to               guarantee               the               integrity               of               the               ethnic               Russian               majorities               in               Georgia,               or               Ukraine               for               that               matter.

The               situation               in               Georgia               and               the               marshes               of               the               new               Middle               Europe               the               West               is               trying               to               carve               out               of               the               East               is               just               a               continuation               of               The               Great               Game               of               the               19th               Century,               when               European               imperialists               vied               with               the               Russian               Empire               for               influence               and               territory               in               the               Caucasus.
               With               support               of               the               war               in               Iraq               waning,               perhaps               the               war-mongers               in               the               White               House,               abetted               by               the               1950s/early               '60s               Cold               War               caricature               that               is               Republican               Presidential               nominee-presumptive               John               McCain,               a               professional               war-monger,               decided               it               was               best               to               restart               the               Cold               War.

It               was               said               in               ancient               Greece               that               each               generation               had               to               experience               war               as               the               unblooded               generation               did               not               understand               it,               or               the               lessons               learned               the               hard-way               by               the               previous               generation               that               had               been               to               the               war.

(There               must               have               been               exceptions               then,               like               the               hard-headed               John               McCain,               the               type               of               war-lover               that               the               post-World               War               II               intelligentsia               generally               ridiculed               and               loathed               despite               the               fact               that               the               world               that               cradled               the               intelligentsia               was               rooted               in               a               permanent               war               economy               that               needed               men               like               John               McCain.

Nobody               hates               war               like               the               professional               soldier,               the               amateurs               say.

Don't               you               believe               it.)
               With               the               reintroduction               of               the               Cold               War,               it               is               time               to               reacquaint               a               new               generation               of               Americans               born               since               Ronald               Reagan               did               the               improbable               and               was               elected               President               to               Marshal               Josef               Broz               Tito,               a               war-monger               who               paradoxically               managed               to               keep               the               peace.

Tito               managed               to               accept               American               military               and               economic               aid               while               keeping               the               Soviet               Union               at               bay.
               A               Dictator               is               Born               
               
               Born               Josip               Broz               on               May               7,               1892               in               the               Croatian               village               of               Kumrovec,               in               what               was               then               the               Austro-Hungarian               Empire               (and               now               is               in               Slovenia),               he               was               the               seventh               of               fifteen               children               born               to               Roman               Catholic               peasants.

His               blacksmith               father,               Franjo               Broz               was               a               Croat,               and               his               mother,               Marija,               was               Slovene.

After               spending               a               part               of               his               childhood               years               with               his               maternal               grandfather               in               Podsreda,               he               returned               to               Kumrovec               to               attend               school.

He               failed               the               first               grade               and               left               his               formal               education               behind               in               1905,               to               be               apprenticed               with               a               locksmith.

As               a               journeyman               locksmith,               he               moved               about               the               Empire.
               The               18-year-old               Broz               joined               the               Croatian               Social               Democratic               Party;               in               1913,               he               was               drafted               into               the               Austro-Hungarian               Imperial               Army.

At               the               beginning               of               World               War               I,               Broz               --               who               had               won               a               silver               medal               at               an               Army               fencing               competition               Mary               1914               --               was               sent               to               Ruma.

It               was               there               that               he               began               to               find               himself               and               his               life's               calling,               being               arrested               for               anti-war               propaganda               and               imprisoned.

He               was               sent               to               Galicia               to               fight               against               the               Russians               and               Serbs               in               1915,               and               was               was               seriously               wounded               by               a               howitzer               shell.

In               April               1915,               his               entire               battalion               was               captured               by               the               Russians.
               The               wounded               Broz               spent               several               months               convalescing               in               a               military               hospital,               where               he               learned               to               speak               Russian.

In               the               fall               of               1916,               he               was               sent               to               a               work               camp               in               the               Ural               mountains.

While               at               the               work               camp,               the               first               Russian               Revolution               of               February               1917               (March,               new               style)               occurred,               culminating               in               the               abdication               of               Tsar               Nicholas               II               on               March               15th.

Broz               was               arrested               for               organizing               demonstrations               among               the               prisoners               of               war               in               April               1917,               but               he               escaped               and               joined               the               Bolsheviks               in               St.

Peterburg               (renamed               Petrograd               after               the               first               revolution),               engaging               in               street               fighting               during               the               attempted               Bolshevik               coup               d'etat               in               Petrograd               on               July               16-17,               1917.
               The               Bolshevik               insurrection               failed               to               spark               a               wider               revolt,               and               was               crushed               by               forces               loyal               to               Aleksandr               Kerensky,               head               of               the               provisional               government.

Broz               fled               for               Finland               to               try               avoid               arrest,               but               his               flight               failed               and               he               was               locked-up.

He               escaped               from               a               train               taking               him               to               another               work               camp,               and               in               November,               he               joined               the               Red               Army               in               Omsk,               Siberia,               fighting               with               the               Red               Guards               in               the               first               years               of               the               Russian               Civil               War               pitting               Reds               against               Whites               (royalists)               and               others.

Broz               applied               for               membership               in               the               Russian               Communist               Party               in               the               spring               of               1918.
               The               Treaty               of               Versailles               incorporated               Croatia               into               the               newly               established               Kingdom               of               the               Serbs,               Croats               and               Slovenes               (or               Yugoslavia),               and               when               he               returned               to               his               village               in               1920,               he               joined               the               Communist               Party               of               Yugoslavia               (CPY).

Now               employed               as               a               metalworker,               Broz               became               a               union               organizer.

He               was               frequently               arrested               after               a               Bosnian               CPY               member               assassinated               the               Yugoslavian               Minister               of               the               Interior,               which               lead               to               the               outlawing               of               the               CPY.

Broz               switched               his               organizing               activities               to               the               underground,               and               in               April               1927,               he               had               ascended               to               the               CPY's               Committee               in               Zagreb.
               As               a               CPY               Committeeman,               Josef               Broz               Tito               caught               the               attention               of               the               Communist               Party               of               the               Soviet               Union               (CPSU).

Through               Soviet               influence,               Broz               was               raised               to               the               position               of               deputy               of               the               Politburo               of               the               CPY               Central               Committee               and               named               leader               of               the               Croatian               and               Slovenian               committees.
               By               1934,               parliamentary               democracy               in               Yugoslavia               had               been               replaced               by               a               dictatorship               under               the               aegis               of               the               Yugoslav               King,               and               the               CPY               remained               banned.

It               was               in               this               year,               shortly               after               his               release               from               his               latest               prison               sentence,               that               Broz               was               named               a               full               member               of               the               CPY               Politburo               and               Central               Committee.

He               adopted               the               nomme               de               guerre               "Tito"               to               use               in               his               party               work               (possibly               because               'tito               alba,'               the               owl,               is               a               creature               of               the               night,               but               represents               wisdom).
               The               newly               yclept               Tito               went               to               the               USSR               in               1935,               where               he               served               in               the               Communist               International's               (Comintern)               Balkan               section.

After               a               year               with               the               Comintern,               Tito               --               who               apparently               won               the               confidence               of               Stalin               --               was               named               Secretary-General               of               the               CPY               and               returned               to               Yugoslavia               to               rebuild               the               party.

Tito               filled               party               posts               with               his               own,               hand-picked               replacements.

Eventually,               his               position               as               Secretary-General               of               the               CPY               was               ratified               officially               ratified               by               105               of               the               6,000               CPY               members               at               a               secret               meeting               in               Zagreb               in               1940.
               Yugoslavia               in               the               Second               World               War
               The               Yugoslavian               government               was               pressured               by               Germany               and               Italy               to               join               the               Axis.

Initially,               it               resisted,               but               it               finally               threw               in               its               lot               with               the               Axis               on               March               25,               1941,               under               duress.

On               March               27th,               the               government               was               overthrown               by               a               pro-Western               military               coup               in               Belgrade,               thus               aborting               Yugoslavia's               alliance               with               the               Axis.

Ten               days               later,               on               April               6th,               Yugoslavia               was               invaded               by               German,               Hungarian               and               Bulgarian               troops,               and               the               Yugoslav               army               was               vanquished               in               less               that               two               weeks,               surrendering               on               April               18th.
               When               the               Axis               invaded               Yugoslavia               in               1941,               Stalin               ordered               the               CPY               to               offer               no               resistance               due               to               the               Nazi               -Soviet               non-aggression               pact               signed               in               August               1939.

Despite               ample               warning,               Stalin               did               not               believe               Hitler               would               attack               him.

What               he               did               not               know               about               the               Axis               incursion               into               Yugoslavia               was               that               Hitler               was               securing               his               southern               flank               prior               to               the               launching               of               Operation               Barbarossa,               the               imminent               invasion               of               the               USSR.

When               Germany               attacked               the               USSR               in               June               1941,               it               now               became               a               duty               for               a               communist               to               defend               his               motherland,               and               thus,               the               Soviet               Union,               by               fighting               the               Axis               powers.

Tito               called               a               meeting               of               the               Central               committee,               which               named               him               Military               Commander.

The               partisan's               struggle               began               with               Tito's               call               to               arms               for               the               people               of               Yugoslavia               with               the               slogan,               "Death               to               Fascism,               Freedom               to               the               People!"
               Their               prior               organization               as               underground               communist               cells               used               to               functioning               in               secrecy               and               with               the               strictest               discipline               meant               that               Tito's               partisans               were               very               well-organized               and               extremely               effective.

Tito's               aim               was               not               only               to               liberate               Yugoslavia,               but               to               establish               the               CPY               in               liberated               areas.

Revolutionary               governments               were               established               in               areas               the               Partisans               liberated,               which               foreshadowed               the               administrative               structure               of               post-war               Yugoslavia.
               The               non-communist,               mostly               Serbian               Chetniks               who               also               fought               against               the               Axis               and               had               the               support               of               both               the               British               and               the               government               in               exile.

However,               they               were               not               seen               as               effective               as               Tito's               Partisans,               and               the               US               and               the               UK               switched               their               support               to               the               Partisans               after               they               successfully               fought               off               ferocious               Axis               attacks               from               January               to               June               1943.

The               Partisans               were               officially               recognized               at               the               Tehran               Conference,               with               the               result               that               aid               and               Allied               guerrillas               were               parachuted               behind               Axis               lines               to               assist               them.

Still,               Tito               refused               to               cooperate               with               the               government-in-exile               in               London.
               After               the               February               1945               Yalta               Conference,               at               which               the               parameters               of               post-war               Europe               were               agreed               upon,               Marshal               Tito               consolidated               his               power               and               that               of               the               CPY               by               purging               his               government               of               non-communists.

Tito               signed               an               agreement               with               the               USSR               on               April               5,               1945               that               permitted               "temporary               entry               of               Soviet               troops               into               Yugoslav               territory".

With               the               help               of               the               Red               Army,               Tito's               Partisans               won               the               war               against               the               Axis               and               their               collaborators.

Tito               then               ordered               foreign               troops               off               of               Yugoslav               soil               after               V-E               Day,               and               turned               to               eliminating               domestic               rivals,               including               members               of               the               originally               anti-fascist               Cetnik               (who               eventually               collaborated               with               the               Germans               to               try               to               stop               Tito)               and               the               fascistic               Ustashe,               who               supported               the               Nazis               as               a               vassal               state               in               Croatia.

Members               of               both               organizations               were               summarily               tried               and               executed               en               masse.

General               Dragoljub               Mihailovic,               the               Cetnik               leader,               was               executed               in               Belgrade               in               March               1946.
               Navigating               Between               the               Scylla               &               Charybdis               of               the               Post-War               Years
               Winning               the               rigged               November               1945               elections,               Josef               Broz               Tito               imposed               a               new               constitution               on               Yugoslavia.

He               further               consolidated               his               power               by               organizing               a               strong               army               and               a               secret               police               force               (the               UDBA),               both               of               which               were               personally               loyal               to               him.
               In               the               post-war               years,               Tito               used               the               UDBA               to               eliminate               Nazi               collaborators.

He               also               targeted               Catholic               priests               and               those               who               had               opposed               the               communist-led               war               effort.

The               purge               was               extended               to               those               communists               who               did               not               agree               with               Tito.
               Initially,               the               economy               and               society               were               collectivized               in               Soviet               fashion,               although               he               did               not               push               for               the               collectivization               of               agriculture.

Tito               began               to               resent               Stalin's               constant               meddling               with               his               government               and               his               suggestions               on               how               Tito               should               run               his               economy.

On               his               part,               Stalin               was               unhappy               with               what               he               perceived               as               an               independent               foreign               policy               that               was               out               of               sync               with               Moscow.

Stalin               tried               to               depose               Tito,               but               would               not               go               so               far               as               to               invade               Yugoslavia,               whose               mountainous               terrain               had               hamstrung               Hitler's               troops               and               ideal               territory               for               partisan               attacks               against               an               organized               military               force.
               Tito               denounced               the               Soviet               policy               of               "...unconditional               subordination               of               small               socialist               countries               to               one               large               socialist               country."               In               response,               Stalin               had               Tito               and               the               CPY               expelled               from               the               Comintern               in               June               1948.

The               USSR,               through               the               Soviet               block               Common               Market               Comecom,               boycotted               Yugoslavia.
               Through               the               vehicle               of               UDBA,               Tito               purged               the               CPY               of               hardcore               Stalinists,               those               that               could               not               be               "reeducated."               He               began               decentralizing               the               economy,               putting               more               power               into               the               hands               of               workers'               councils               on               the               principle               of               workers'               self-management.

To               keep               himself               in               power               and               Yugoslavia               independent               of               the               USSR,               he               turned               to               the               West               for               financial               aid.

The               Greek               Civil               War               sputtered               out               after               Tito               sealed               off               the               border               with               Greece,               denying               communist               infiltrators               egress               into               Greece.
               After               the               death               of               Stalin               in               March               5,               1953,               Tito               attempted               a               reconciliation               with               the               USSR,               meeting               with               new               CPSU               party               boss               Nikita               Khrushchev               in               Belgrade               in               1955.

The               meeting               resulted               in               the               Belgrade               Declaration,               which               affirmed               equality               in               relations               between               communist               countries               (although               in               the               case               of               Hungary               in               1956               and               Czechoslovakia               in               1968,               that               equality               was               observed               in               the               breach               rather               than               the               observance).
               Freed               to               a               degree               of               the               Soviet               threat,               Tito's               policy               of               "non-engagement"               developed               into               a               policy               of               "nonalignment."               He               overhauled               his               foreign               policy               to               promote               a               non-aligned               bloc               between               the               West               and               the               Warsaw               Pact.

Convening               a               meeting               of               25               non-aligned               states               with               India's               Nehru               and               Egypt's               Nasser               in               1956,               a               third,               alternative               neutral               bloc               came               into               being.

Tito               traveled               extensively               in               the               developing               world               during               the               1960's               and               1970's               to               promote               non-alignment.
               On               the               domestic               front,               Tito               maintained               a               balance               among               the               different               nationalities               of               his               polyglot               country.

It               ensured               stability               for               as               long               as               the               CPY               and               the               secret               police               maintained               control               of               Yugoslavia.

Tito's               system               of               "symmetrical               federalism,"               while               predicated               upon               the               principle               of               equality               among               the               six               republics               and               two               autonomous               provinces,               in               fact               played               the               nationalities               off               against               each               other.
               His               ties               with               the               West               encouraged               trade,               which               helped               boost               Yugoslavia's               standard               of               living.

Yugoslavia's               beaches               became               a               top               tourist               destination               for               Western               European               tourists,               due               to               their               beauty,               the               relative               openness               of               Yugoslav               society               an               the               favorable               exchange               right,               which               made               an               excursion               to               Yugoslavia               very               affordable.

The               economy               of               some               of               the               Yugoslavian               provinces,               particularly               Croatia               and               Slovenia,               thrived               during               the               Cold               War.
               President-for-Life
               Marshal               Josef               Broz               Tito               was               styled               President-for-Life               in               1974.

While               he               allowed               a               freer               exchange               of               people               and               ideas               than               most               of               the               countries               in               the               communist               bloc,               the               major               question               of               his               regime               remained               would               Yugoslavia               survive               the               death               of               Tito.

Without               a               strongman               and               the               monopoly               on               power               enjoyed               by               the               CPY,               backed               up               by               the               Army               and               the               secret               police,               would               Yugoslavia               remain               a               country?
               Josef               Broz               Tito               died               on               May               4,               1980               in               a               hospital               in               Lubljana,               Slovenia,               after               being               gravely               ill               for               almost               four               months.

He               was               the               last               of               the               World               War               II               leaders               to               leave               the               world               stage,               having               outlived               his               patron               then               nemesis               Josef               Stalin               by               almost               30               years.

The               country               that               he               kept               together               did               not               outlive               him               by               much               more               than               a               decade.

Croatian               nationalists               won               the               first               free               elections               in               their               province               in               April               and               May               1990,               and               the               independence               of               Croatia               was               proclaimed               on               June               25,               1991,               touching               off               a               series               of               civil               wars               that               left               Yugoslavia               a               rump               of               Serbia               and               Montenegro.
               By               1992,               after               the               secession               of               Bosnia               &               Herzegovina,               Croatia,               Macedonia,               and               Slovenia,               Serbia               and               Montenegro               declared               themselves               the               Federal               Republic               of               Yugoslavia.

That               arrangement               was               replaced               by               a               weaker               confederation               called               Serbia               and               Montenegro.

The               country               known               as               Yugoslavia               ceased               to               exist,               officially,               on               February               4,               2003,               by               order               of               the               Yugoslav               Federal               Parliament.
               Montenegro               voted               in               a               May               21,               2006               referendum               to               become               independent               of               Serbia,               and               the               government               of               Montenegro               declared               itself               independent.

Serbia               also               declared               its               independence,               effectively               ending               any               trace               of               the               former               Yugoslavia               that               Josef               Broz               Tito               had               overseen               as               the               Strongman               of               the               Balkans               for               36               years.






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